The paper shows that Buddhist authors actively engaged with these new discourses to articulate their actual beliefs and practices. Differentiating the Buddhist “true faith” (zhengxin 正信) from “deluded faith” (mixin 迷 信), they tried to defend Buddhism from the accusation of spread- ing superstition. To promote the relevance of Buddhism in public life, they advocated for Buddhism’s role in advancing education and social welfare.