When Indian “Victorious Crown Ornament” Encounters China: A Study on the Ritual Texts, Imagery, and the History of Buddhist Teachings Related to the Uṣṇīṣavijayā Maṇḍala during the Song-Yuan Period (960–1368)
In the tantric Buddhist pantheon, “Victorious Crown Ornament” (Skt. Uṣṇīṣavijayā; Tib. Gtsug tor rnam par rgyal ma) represents the personified image of the Uṣṇīṣavijayā dhāraṇī. The veneration of Uṣṇīṣavijayā began between the eleventh and twelfth centuries, paralleling the Song and Western Xia dynasties in China. The ritual texts from the Song to the Yuan dynasties (960–1368) recording the image of Uṣṇīṣavijayā include translations by various Indian, Chinese, and Tibetan translators, such as Candragomin (Tib. Btsun pa zla ba, active in the seventh century), Mitrayogin (Tib. Mi tra dzo gi, active in the twelfth to thirteenth centuries), Dharmadeva (Fa Tian 法天, ?–1001), Ba ri lo tsā ba (1040–1112), Jāyānanda (active in the twelfth century), and Yar klung lo tsā ba Grags pa rgyal mtshan (1242–1346). Based on the descriptions in these Sanskrit, Chinese, and Tibetan tantric texts, this study compares key examples of Uṣṇīṣavijayā imagery from excavations and preserved art across the Hexi Corridor, Tibet, the Himalayas, and Hangzhou, examining the connections between the maṇḍala-making rituals described in these texts and the exist- ing images in order to answer three key questions: Which Buddhist teachings were prevalent during the Western Xia period? According to which ritual texts were the Uṣṇīṣavijayā maṇḍalas in Yulin Cave 3 and Feilai Feng possibly created? And what are the historical references for dating Yulin Cave 3?